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<TABLE cellpadding=5 cellspacing=0 width="90%"><TR><TD CLASS="chtitle">
<FONT COLOR="#FFFFFF">
<CENTER><B>CHAPTER 22.&nbsp; ADJECTIVES USED IN COMPARISONS: PART 1</B></CENTER></FONT></TD></TR></TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<!--page 283-->
As well as being used to describe persons and things, adjectives which
refer to qualities can also be used to compare two or more different
persons or things. For instance, in the following sentences, the
adjectives used in comparisons are underlined.<BR>
e.g. He is as <U>tall</U> as his brother.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is <U>older</U> than her sister.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They are the <U>youngest</U> students in the class.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="1"></A>
<CENTER><B>1. Positive forms of adjectives preceded and followed by As</B></CENTER><BR>

The unaltered form of an adjective is often referred to as the
<B>positive</B> form of the adjective. In the preceding chapter, only
the positive form of adjectives was used.<BR>
<BR>
The positive forms of adjectives referring to qualities can be used in
making certain types of comparisons. For example, in the following
sentences, the positive forms of the adjectives <B>proud</B> and <B>intelligent</B>
are combined with the word <B>as</B> in order to make comparisons.<BR>
e.g. She is <U>as proud as</U> a peacock.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They are <U>as intelligent as</U> I am.<BR>
<BR>
When used in making comparisons, the positive form of an adjective is
usually employed as a predicate adjective, preceded and followed by the
word <B>as</B>. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; noun, pronoun or</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>to be</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; positive</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; noun, pronoun or</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; other expression &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; or other &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>as</B> &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; form of &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>as</B> &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; other expression</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; representing 1st</TD><TD>&nbsp; linking</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; representing 2nd</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; thing being compared</TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp;verb</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; thing being compared</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Swans</TD><TD>&nbsp; are</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; white</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; snow.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Tom</TD><TD>&nbsp; is</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; tall</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; his father.</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
This type of construction can be used to indicate that the things being
compared are equal in some respect. For instance, the first example
indicates that swans and snow are equally white. The second example
indicates that Tom and his father are equally tall.<BR>
<BR>
The sentence <B>She is as proud as a peacock</B> gives an example of a
traditional English saying which compares a person having a certain
quality to an animal which is noted for possessing that quality. In the
following sentences, the traditional expressions are underlined.<BR>
e.g. He is <U>as clever as a monkey</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is <U>as wise as an owl</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; My sister looks <U>as pretty as a princess</U>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 284-->
The use of this construction with <B>as</B> to compare two different types of
thing, such as a person and an animal, results in a type of comparison
referred to as a <B>simile</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#1">Exercise 1</A>.<BR>
<BR>
The meaning of an expression using <B>as</B>, followed by an adjective,
followed by <B>as</B> can be qualified by adverbs such as <B>not</B>, <B>almost</B>,
<B>twice</B>, <B>three times</B>, <B>half</B>, <B>one-third</B> and so on. The adverbs in the following sentences are underlined.<BR>
e.g. He is <U>not</U> as hard-working as his brother.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is <U>almost</U> as tall as he is.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Her sister is <U>twice</U> as old as I am.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; A millimeter is <U>one-tenth</U> as long as a centimeter.<BR>
<BR>
As shown below, in such a construction, the adverb is placed before the
first occurrence of the word <B>as</B>.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; noun, pronoun or</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp;  </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp;  noun, pronoun or</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; other expression</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>to be</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; positive</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; other expression</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; representing &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; or other &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <U>adverb</U> &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>as</B> &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; form of &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>as</B> &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; representing</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; 1st thing</TD><TD>&nbsp; linking</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; 2nd thing</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; being compared</TD><TD>&nbsp; verb</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; being compared</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; He</TD><TD>&nbsp; is</TD><TD>&nbsp; <U>nearly</U></TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; clever</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; his uncle.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; are</TD><TD>&nbsp; <U>not</U></TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; tall</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; the house.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#2">Exercise 2</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="1a"></A>
<B>a. The positive form combined with a noun</B><BR>
The construction <B>as</B>, followed by an adjective, followed by <B>as</B> can
also be combined with a noun, as shown in the following examples.<BR>
e.g. Gail is <U>as strong a swimmer as</U> Beth.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Mabel is <U>as clever an administrator as</U> Robin.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The girls are <U>as good students as</U> the boys.<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, Gail is being compared as a swimmer to Beth. In
the second example, Mabel is being compared as an administrator to Robin.
In the third example, the girls are being compared as students to the
boys.<BR>
<BR>
As illustrated in these examples, if the noun following the adjective is
a singular countable noun, it must be separated from the adjective by the
indefinite article <B>a</B> or <B>an</B>. The position of <B>a</B> or <B>an</B> is indicated in the summary below.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; positive</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>a</B> or</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>as&nbsp; &nbsp;+</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; form of&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>an</B> &nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; noun&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>as</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; He is</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; fine</TD><TD>&nbsp; a</TD><TD>&nbsp; man</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; his father.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; She is</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; good</TD><TD>&nbsp; an</TD><TD>&nbsp; instructor</TD><TD>&nbsp; as</TD><TD>&nbsp; her colleague.</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>

<!--page 285-->
In the case of plural nouns, no article is required.<BR>
e.g. The boys are <U>as reliable workers as</U> one can find.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They are <U>as powerful athletes as</U> their competitors.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#3">Exercise 3</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="1b"></A>
<B>b. The use of ellipsis</B><BR>
The construction <B>as</B> followed by an adjective, followed by <B>as</B>, can
also be combined with longer phrases and clauses, as illustrated in the
following examples.<BR>
e.g. New York is <U>as distant from San Francisco as</U> Boston is from London.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Music is <U>as important to Cora as</U> literature is to her brother.<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, the distance of New York from San Francisco is
being compared to the distance of Boston from London. In the second
example, the importance of music to Cora is being compared to the
importance of literature to her brother.<BR>
<BR>
The preceding examples illustrate the use of ellipsis. The sentences
could also be written as follows. The words which would usually be
omitted are enclosed in square brackets.<BR>
e.g. New York is as <U>distant</U> from San Francisco as Boston is [distant]
from London.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Music is as <U>important</U> to Cora as literature is [important] to her
brother.<BR>
In such sentences, the adjective in the second part of the sentence is
usually omitted, in order to make the sentence less awkward.<BR>
<BR>
Ellipsis is also commonly used following a noun representing the second
thing being compared. For instance, in the following sentences, the
final verbs are omitted.<BR>
e.g. He is as tall as his brother.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I am as good a swimmer as her sisters.<BR>
<BR>These sentences could also be written:<BR>
e.g. He is as tall as his brother <U>is</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I am as good a swimmer as her sisters <U>are</U>.<BR>
<BR>
In informal English, the final verb is usually not omitted following a
personal pronoun representing the second thing being compared.<BR>
e.g. I am as tall as <U>he is</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is as good a swimmer as <U>I am</U>.<BR>
<BR>
However, in formal English, the final verb following a personal pronoun
representing the second thing being compared is sometimes omitted.<BR>
e.g. I am as tall as <U>he</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is as good a swimmer as <U>I</U>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="1c"></A>
<B>c. The use of the subjective case</B><BR>
As shown above, when a personal pronoun is used in a comparison to
represent the second thing being compared, the subjective case of the
pronoun should be used. The reason for this is that the pronoun is the
subject of a verb, even when the verb is omitted by means of ellipsis.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 286-->
In informal English, the objective case of such personal pronouns is
sometimes used.<BR>
e.g. I am as tall as <U>him</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is as good as swimmer as <U>me</U>.<BR>
However, this use of the objective case is considered to be grammatically
incorrect.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#4">Exercise 4</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="2"></A>
<CENTER><B>2. Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives which use endings</B></CENTER><BR>

As pointed out in the discussion on the <A HREF="gramch17.html">possessive forms</A> of nouns, some
elements of English grammar are derived from Teutonic languages, such as
German, while other elements are derived from Romance languages,
particularly French.<BR>
<BR>
Many English adjectives follow the model of French adjectives. These
adjectives are combined with adverbs in order to express different types
of comparison. In the following examples, the adjectives <B>careful</B> and
<B>excitable</B> are combined with the adverbs <B>more</B> and <B>most</B>.<BR>
e.g. She is <U>more careful</U> than I am.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He is the <U>most excitable</U> boy in the class.<BR>
<BR>
However, in general, the shortest and most commonly used English
adjectives follow the model of languages such as German. These
adjectives use endings in order to express different types of
comparison.<BR>
e.g. She is <U>taller</U> than I am.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He is the <U>oldest</U> boy in the class.<BR>
<A NAME="2en"></A>
<BR>
The adjectives which use endings in order to express different types
of comparison include most one-syllable adjectives, and two-syllable
adjectives ending in <B>y</B>. For example:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; brave<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; tall<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; easy<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; happy<BR>
<BR>In the above examples, <B>brave</B> and <B>tall</B> are one-syllable adjectives, while <B>easy</B> and <B>happy</B> are
two-syllable adjectives ending in <B>y</B>.<BR>
<BR>
A few other two-syllable adjectives are also sometimes used with endings. For example:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; able<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; simple<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; clever<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; quiet<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; narrow<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; shallow<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that one-syllable past participles used as adjectives
are usually not used with endings.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a"></A>
<B>a. Comparative forms of adjectives which use endings</B><BR>
The comparative form of an adjective is most often used to compare
things which differ in some respect. In the following examples, the
comparative forms of adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. Louis is <U>younger</U> than Mark.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; You are a <U>better</U> actor than he is.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 287-->
The comparative form of adjectives which use endings is formed with the
ending <B>er</B>. As illustrated below, the spelling rules which apply when
adding the ending <B>er</B> to an adjective are the same as those which apply
when adding the ending <B>ed</B> to a verb.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a1"></A>
<B>i. Spelling Rules</B><BR>
In most cases, the ending <B>er</B> is simply added to the
positive form of the adjective. For example:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="75%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Positive Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Comparative Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; fast</TD><TD>&nbsp; faster</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; strong</TD><TD>&nbsp; stronger</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; tall</TD><TD>&nbsp; taller</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; young</TD><TD>&nbsp; younger</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
However, when an adjective ends in a silent <B>e</B>, the silent <B>e</B> is
dropped before the ending <B>er</B> is added. For example:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="75%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Positive Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Comparative Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; brave</TD><TD>&nbsp; braver</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; close</TD><TD>&nbsp; closer</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; late</TD><TD>&nbsp; later</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
When an adjective ends in <B>y</B> preceded by a consonant, the <B>y</B> is
changed to <B>i</B> before the ending <B>er</B> is added. For example:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="75%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Positive Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Comparative Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; dry</TD><TD>&nbsp; drier</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; early</TD><TD>&nbsp; earlier</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; easy</TD><TD>&nbsp; easier</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
When an adjective ends in a single consonant other than <B>w</B>, <B>x</B> or
<B>y</B>, following a single stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled
before the ending <B>er</B> is added. For example:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="75%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Positive Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Comparative Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; big</TD><TD>&nbsp; bigger</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; hot</TD><TD>&nbsp; hotter</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; sad</TD><TD>&nbsp; sadder</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
When an adjective ends in <B>w</B>, <B>x</B> or <B>y</B>, following a single stressed
vowel, the final consonant is <U>not</U> doubled before the ending <B>er</B> is
added. For example:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="75%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Positive Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Comparative Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; slow</TD><TD>&nbsp; slower</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; lax</TD><TD>&nbsp; laxer</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; grey</TD><TD>&nbsp; greyer</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>

<!--page 288-->
It should be kept in mind that when an adjective ends in a single
consonant following <U>two</U> vowels, the final consonant is <U>not</U> doubled
before the ending <B>er</B> is added. For example:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="75%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Positive Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Comparative Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; loud</TD><TD>&nbsp; louder</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; neat</TD><TD>&nbsp; neater</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; soon</TD><TD>&nbsp; sooner</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#5">Exercise 5</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a2"></A>
<B>ii. Irregular adjectives</B><BR>
A few of the adjectives which are used with
endings have irregular comparative forms. The comparative forms of the
irregular English adjectives are as follows.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="75%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Positive Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Comparative Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; bad</TD><TD>&nbsp; worse</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; far</TD><TD>&nbsp; farther <B>or</B> further</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; good</TD><TD>&nbsp; better</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; little</TD><TD>&nbsp; less</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; many</TD><TD>&nbsp; more</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; much</TD><TD>&nbsp; more</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
As shown above, the adjective <B>far</B> has two comparative forms. The
distinction is sometimes made that <B>farther</B> is used to refer to physical
distances, while <B>further</B> is used to refer to figurative distances. For example:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The <U>farther</U> side of the river is more picturesque than this side.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Nothing could have been <U>further</U> from my mind.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that the adjectives <B>many</B> and <B>much</B> both have
the same comparative form, <B>more</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#6">Exercise 6</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a3"></A>
<B>iii. The comparative form followed by Than</B><BR>
When used in comparisons,
the comparative forms of adjectives are usually followed by the word
<B>than</B>. For instance, the way in which two things differ in some
respect can be expressed by using the comparative form of an adjective
as a predicate adjective followed by <B>than</B>.<BR>
e.g. Paul is <U>wiser than</U> Greg.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The tree is <U>taller than</U> the house.<BR>
The first sentence indicates that Paul possesses greater wisdom than
Greg. The second sentence indicates that the tree possesses greater
height than the house.<BR>
<BR>
This type of construction is summarized below, followed by examples.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; noun, pronoun or</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>to be</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; comparative</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; noun, pronoun or</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; other expression&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; or other&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; form of &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>than</B>&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; other expression</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; representing 1st</TD><TD>&nbsp; linking</TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; representing 2nd</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; thing being compared</TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp;verb</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; thing being compared</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Jill</TD><TD>&nbsp; is</TD><TD>&nbsp; shorter</TD><TD>&nbsp; than</TD><TD>&nbsp; Maureen.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Ice</TD><TD>&nbsp; feels</TD><TD>&nbsp; colder</TD><TD>&nbsp; than</TD><TD>&nbsp; snow.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Driving a car</TD><TD>&nbsp; is</TD><TD>&nbsp; easier</TD><TD>&nbsp; than</TD><TD>&nbsp; riding a horse.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<!--page 289-->
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#7">Exercise 7</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a4"></A>
<B>iv. The comparative form followed by a noun, followed by Than</B><BR>
The comparative form of an adjective followed by <B>than</B> can also be combined
with a noun.<BR>
e.g. She is a <U>better cook</U> than her sister.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He has <U>wiser ideas</U> than they do.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that in this type of construction, when a singular
countable noun is used after the adjective, the comparative form of the
adjective <U>follows</U> the indefinite article <B>a</B> or <B>an</B>. This position of
<B>a</B> or <B>an</B> is indicated in the summary below.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>a</B> or</TD><TD>&nbsp; comparative</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; verb&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>an</B>&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; form of&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; noun&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>than</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Kate</TD><TD>&nbsp; is</TD><TD>&nbsp; a</TD><TD>&nbsp; braver</TD><TD>&nbsp; person</TD><TD>&nbsp; than</TD><TD>&nbsp; you are.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Steel</TD><TD>&nbsp; is</TD><TD>&nbsp; a</TD><TD>&nbsp; stronger</TD><TD>&nbsp; material</TD><TD>&nbsp; than</TD><TD>&nbsp; iron.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; He</TD><TD>&nbsp; has</TD><TD>&nbsp; a</TD><TD>&nbsp; busier</TD><TD>&nbsp; schedule</TD><TD>&nbsp; than</TD><TD>&nbsp; I do.</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
It should be noted that this position of <B>a</B> or <B>an</B> is in contrast to
the word order found in the construction with <B>as</B>. For instance, in
the following examples, the adjectives are underlined and the indefinite article <B>a</B> is printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. Kate is as <U>brave</U> <B>a</B> person as Robin.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Kate is <B>a</B> <U>braver</U> person than I am.<BR>
<BR>
In the case of nouns which are uncountable or plural, no article is
required. In the following examples, the uncountable or plural nouns
preceding the word <B>than</B> are underlined.
<BR>
e.g. We produce sweeter <U>honey</U> than they do.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They are better <U>actors</U> than we are.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She has warmer <U>gloves</U> than her friend does.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#8">Exercise 8</A>.<BR>
<BR>
The comparative form of an adjective followed by <B>than</B> can also be
combined with longer phrases and clauses, as illustrated in the
following examples.
<BR>
e.g. The air is <U>fresher</U> in the mountains <B>than</B> in the valleys.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The work seems <U>easier</U> once one becomes familiar with it <B>than</B> it does
at first.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a5"></A>
<B>v. The use of ellipsis</B><BR>
In comparisons using the comparative form of an
adjective, the second half of the comparison is often omitted completely,
when it is considered obvious what is meant. In each of the following
examples, the part of the comparison which might normally be omitted is
enclosed in square brackets.<BR>
e.g. Things could get worse [than they are now].<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I do not want to walk much further [than this].<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Would you like more milk [than you already have]?<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 290-->
<A NAME="2a6"></A>
<B>vi. The use of the subjective case</B><BR>
In comparisons using <B>than</B>, personal
pronouns following <B>than</B> should be in the subjective case.<BR>
e.g. I am taller than <U>he</U> is.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is a better student than <U>I</U> am.<BR>
<BR>
In formal English, the final verb of such sentences is sometimes
omitted.<BR>
e.g. I am taller than <U>he</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is a better student than <U>I</U>.<BR>
<BR>
In informal English, the objective case of a personal pronoun is
often used after <B>than</B>.<BR>
e.g. I am taller than <U>him</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is a better student than <U>me</U>.<BR>
However, this use of the objective case is considered to be grammatically
incorrect.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#9">Exercise 9</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a7"></A>
<B>vii. Progressive comparisons</B><BR>
As well as being used in combination with
<B>than</B> to compare objects which differ in some respect, the comparative
form of an adjective can also be used to describe a characteristic which
is becoming progressively more pronounced.<BR>
e.g. The waves are growing <U>rougher and rougher</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The sounds became <U>fainter and fainter</U>.<BR>
<BR>
The first example indicates that the waves are growing progressively
rougher than they were before. The second example indicates that the
sounds became progressively fainter than they were before. The meaning
expressed in these two examples can also be expressed as follows.<BR>
e.g. The waves are growing <U>increasingly rough</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The sounds became <U>increasingly faint</U>.<BR>
<BR>
In this type of construction, the comparative form
of an adjective is used as a predicate adjective, and is repeated.
The two occurrences of the adjective are connected by the word <B>and</B>. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; noun, pronoun or</TD><TD>&nbsp; linking verb,</TD><TD>&nbsp; comparative</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; comparative</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; other expression&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; such as &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; form of &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>and</B>&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; form of</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; representing thing</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>to grow</B> or</TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; being described</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>to become</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The noise</TD><TD>&nbsp; is becoming</TD><TD>&nbsp; louder</TD><TD>&nbsp; and</TD><TD>&nbsp; louder.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The lights</TD><TD>&nbsp; grew</TD><TD>&nbsp; brighter</TD><TD>&nbsp; and</TD><TD>&nbsp; brighter.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>

In informal English, the verb <B>to get</B> is often used in this type of
construction.<BR>
e.g. The noise <U>is getting</U> louder and louder.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The lights <U>got</U> brighter and brighter.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#10">Exercise 10</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 291-->
<A NAME="2b"></A>
<B>b. Superlative forms of adjectives which use endings</B><BR>
The superlative form of an adjective is used to describe something which
possesses a characteristic in the greatest degree. In the following
examples, the superlative forms of the adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. Louis is the <U>youngest</U> boy in our class.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is the <U>best</U> actress I have ever seen.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2b1"></A>
<B>i. Spelling rules</B><BR>
The superlative form of adjectives which use endings
is formed with the ending <B>est</B>. As illustrated in the following
table, the spelling rules for adding the ending <B>est</B> to the positive
form of an adjective are the same as those which apply when adding the
ending <B>er</B>.<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Illustration of Spelling Rules for Adjectives which use Endings</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Final Letter(s) of Positive Form of  Adjective</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Positive Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Comparative Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Superlative Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; two consonants (other than <B>y</B>)</TD><TD>&nbsp; fa<U>st</U></TD><TD>&nbsp; fa<U>st</U>er</TD><TD>&nbsp; fa<U>st</U>est</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <B>y</B> preceded by a consonant</TD><TD>&nbsp; dr<U>y</U></TD><TD>&nbsp; dr<U>i</U>er</TD><TD>&nbsp; dr<U>i</U>est</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; silent <B>e</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; brav<U>e</U></TD><TD>&nbsp; brav<U>e</U>r</TD><TD>&nbsp; brav<U>e</U>st</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; one consonant preceded by 2 vowels</TD><TD>&nbsp; lou<U>d</U></TD><TD>&nbsp; lou<U>d</U>er</TD><TD>&nbsp; lou<U>d</U>est</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <B>w</B>, <B>x</B> or <B>y</B> preceded by a vowel</TD><TD>&nbsp; ne<U>w</U></TD><TD>&nbsp; ne<U>w</U>er</TD><TD>&nbsp; ne<U>w</U>est</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; one consonant (other than <B>w</B>, <B>x</B> or <B>y</B>),</TD><TD>&nbsp; fa<U>t</U></TD><TD>&nbsp; fa<U>tt</U>er</TD><TD>&nbsp; fa<U>tt</U>est</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; preceded by a single stressed vowel</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#11">Exercise 11</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2b2"></A>
<B>ii. Irregular adjectives</B><BR>
As can be seen from the following table, the
superlative forms of the English irregular adjectives are closely
related to the comparative forms of these adjectives.<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>English Irregular Adjectives</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Positive Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Comparative Form</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Superlative Form</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; bad</TD><TD>&nbsp; worse</TD><TD>&nbsp; worst</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; far</TD><TD>&nbsp; farther <B>or</B> further</TD><TD>&nbsp; farthest <B>or</B> furthest</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; good</TD><TD>&nbsp; better</TD><TD>&nbsp; best</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; little</TD><TD>&nbsp; less</TD><TD>&nbsp; least</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; many</TD><TD>&nbsp; more</TD><TD>&nbsp; most</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; much</TD><TD>&nbsp; more</TD><TD>&nbsp; most</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>

<!--page 292-->
It should be noted that the adjective <B>far</B> has two superlative forms,
<B>farthest</B> and <B>furthest</B>, corresponding to the two comparative forms
<B>farther</B> and <B>further</B>; and also that the adjectives <B>many</B> and <B>much</B> share
the same superlative form, <B>most</B>, corresponding to the comparative form
<B>more</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#12">Exercise 12</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2b3"></A>
<B>iii. The superlative form preceded by The</B><BR>
The superlative forms of
adjectives are usually preceded by <B>the</B>, and followed by the nouns they
modify. For example, in the following sentences, the superlative forms
<B>tallest</B> and <B>fastest</B> are preceded by <B>the</B> and followed by the nouns
<B>boy</B> and <B>runner</B>.<BR>
e.g. Frank is <U>the tallest boy</U> in the class.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Nancy is <U>the fastest runner</U> on the team.<BR>
The first example indicates that no other boy in the class is as tall as
Frank. The second example indicates that no one else on the team is as
fast a runner as Nancy.<BR>
<BR>
This type of construction is summarized below, followed by examples.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; superlative</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>the</B>&nbsp; &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; form of &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  +</TD><TD>&nbsp;  noun</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; This is</TD><TD>&nbsp; the</TD><TD>&nbsp; newest</TD><TD>&nbsp; building</TD><TD>&nbsp; in the city.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; They are</TD><TD>&nbsp; the</TD><TD>&nbsp; best</TD><TD>&nbsp; students</TD><TD>&nbsp; I have met.</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
It should be noted that this use of <B>the</B> is consistent with the
previously discussed use of <B>the</B> to refer to things which are considered
unique in some way.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex22.html#13">Exercises 13</A> and <A HREF="gramex22.html#14">14</A>.<BR>
<BR>
It should also be noted that the superlative forms of adjectives can be
preceded by possessive adjectives, instead of by the definite article
<B>the</B>. In the following examples, the possessive adjectives are
underlined.<BR>
e.g. <U>My</U> worst suspicions were aroused.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He promised to give it <U>his</U> closest attention.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Jack's</U> best friend is a member of the hockey team.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2b4"></A>
<B>iv. The use of ellipsis</B><BR>
When the superlative forms of adjectives are
employed to make comparisons, ellipsis is commonly used in the second
part of the comparisons.
The following are examples of the use of ellipsis in this type of
comparison.<BR>
e.g. She is the best doctor I know.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; This is the worst thing that could have happened.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 293-->
These two sentences could also be written as follows. The words which
would usually be omitted are enclosed in square brackets.<BR>
e.g. She is the best doctor [of all the doctors that] I know.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; This is the worst thing [of all the things] that could have happened.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that the noun following the superlative form of
an adjective is often omitted, when it is obvious what is meant. This
is illustrated in the following examples.<BR>
e.g. That star is the brightest.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; These cookies are the best.<BR>
<BR>
These sentences could also be written as follows. The nouns which would
usually be omitted are enclosed in square brackets.<BR>
e.g. That star is the brightest [star].<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; These cookies are the best [cookies].<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2b5"></A>
<B>v. The comparison of one or more things with a group</B><BR>
When one or more
things are compared with a group <U>to which they do not belong</U>, the
<U>comparative</U> form of an adjective is normally used.<BR>
e.g. Alan is <U>younger</U> than all the other boys in the class.<BR>
In this example, Alan is being compared with all the <B>other</B> boys in
the class. Thus, he is being compared with a group to which he does
not belong, and the comparative form <B>younger</B> is used.<BR>
<BR>
In general, the presence of the word <B>other</B> in the second half of a
comparison usually indicates that one or more things are being compared
with a group to which they do not belong.<BR>
<BR>
In contrast, when one or more things are compared with members of a
group <U>to which they belong</U>, the <U>superlative</U> form of an adjective is
normally used.<BR>
e.g. Alan is the <U>youngest</U> of all the boys in the class.<BR>
In this example, Alan is being compared with members of the group
identified as <B>all the boys</B> in the class. This is a group to which
he belongs. Therefore, the superlative form <B>youngest</B> is used.<BR>
<BR>
The following examples provide a further illustration of the difference
between the two types of comparison.<BR>
e.g. The girls are <U>neater</U> than the boys.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The girls are the <U>best</U> students in the school.<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, the girls are being compared with <B>the boys</B>,
a group to which they do not belong. Therefore, the comparative form
<B>neater</B> is used.<BR>
<BR>
In the second example, the girls are being compared with members of a
group consisting of all the students in the school, a group to which the
girls belong. Therefore, the superlative form <B>best</B> is used.

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